Film Screening - Program Change

Instead of Gladiator, we will see Alexander (2004, directed by Oliver Stone)at 4 November (17.00, GKM)

Essay Exercise

Dear students,

Please write a well-organized essay on the following question. It should not exceed 2 pages (print-out, double-spaced). You are supposed to hand in your essays next week (6 November) in the discussion sessions. On-line submissions will not be considered. This is an exercise to make you familiar with the essay format that we expect you to write in the exams.

*Please explain when, how and why writing begins in the Ancient Near East.

Reading Addition, Week V

Dear all,
In addition to pp.55-93 and 116-130, you are expected to read pp.46-55 from Stearns.

FRIDAY CLASS - NO PROGRAM CHANGE

Dear all,
There is no change in our program for Friday. Discussion sessions and the lecture will be held as usual.

Primary Sources

Dear all,
You can find the primary sources of the whole semester at Hisar Copy. There might be changes at certain weeks, so follow the announcements to be made in coming weeks.

Early South Asia: The Land of Brahmins

Over the millennia various invasions have added great diversity and complexity to the cultures of the Indian subcontinent; the gradual incorporation of various cultural elements into its own complex civilization has been a continuing feature of India's history.

Indus Civilization

One of the world's oldest and greatest civilizations took shape between about 3000 and 2500 BC in the valley of the Indus River, from which the name of the Indian subcontinent is taken. Sites of this INDUS CIVILIZATION at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro--both in present-day Pakistan--have been extensively excavated; other sites have been uncovered in India in the far east and far south as well as the coast of the Gujarat region.

The Indus, or Harappa, civilization, one of the most advanced of ancient times, was similar in many ways to contemporary cultures in Mesopotamia. Harappans lived in towns with two- and three-story brick houses, and well-laid-out streets and drainage systems; they employed tools of copper, bronze, and stone; they wore clothing of cotton; and they used rather sophisticated pottery and other kinds of cooking and serving utensils. Harappa script, which appears on innumerable seals and art works, has not yet been deciphered.

Aryan Culture

Harappa culture thrived until about 1500 BC, when the Indus Valley was overrun by ARYAN invaders from the Iranian plateau. The seminomadic Aryans spoke an archaic form of Sanskrit and left no remains of cities, burials, arts, or crafts. What is known about the Aryans has been passed down through religious texts--the VEDAS, especially the Rig Veda ("Verses of Knowledge"). Originally transmitted orally, the Vedas describe a highly ritualistic worship with innumerable deities, a rich mythology, and an elaborate fire sacrifice. They also mention the system of varnas, or classes, from which evolved the CASTE system. The four varnas were the Brahmans , or priests; the Kshatriya, political rulers or warriors; Vaishya, traders and cultivators; and Shudra, artisans. The Vedas and the caste system remain central to the Indian socioreligious system, HINDUISM. Thus the Aryans gave to India many of its basic institutions and cultural habits.

Early Cultural Cleavages

According to one theory, the Aryans, a warlike people who rode on horseback, pushed southward many of northern India's darker-skinned and shorter inhabitants, whom they called dasas. This theory, yet to be proven, is sometimes used to explain the origins of the division between the Aryan linguistic groups in the North and the DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGES of the South. Some modern southern separatists have claimed that the Dravidian speakers predate the Aryan invaders, but there is not yet sufficient linguistic evidence to date the arrival of Dravidian speakers in southern India. Cultural distinctions between North and South remain, however, in modern India. Aryan religious texts indicate that the Aryans viewed themselves as racially and culturally superior and despised the dasas. In the north, the area of Aryan dominance, the name dasa eventually came to mean "slave" or "bondsman." The dasas probably performed many of the unpleasant but necessary tasks in the segmented society that was developing under Aryan influence.

Epics

The epic Mahabharata is the story about the important battle of the Aryans the Bharata war, in the area between the two watersheds of the Indus and Ganges. The sense of space particularly sacred because of this history is very important to Indian thought as shown in the epic. Composed of 75.000 stanzas it is the longest work of literature in the world.Based on a war between two rival cousins is ultimately construed as a cosmic struggle between evil and virtue. It has been edited and added to over time. One of the most famous additions is the Bhagavad-Gita, the Lord’s song.

Challenges to Brahman Ascendancy

Over the centuries pre-Aryan and Aryan cultures gradually fused in northern India as the Aryans expanded slowly eastward into the Gangetic plain, where the second of ancient India's great urban civilizations developed. Such cities as PATALIPUTRA (near modern Patna), Kasi (modern VARANASI), and Ajodhya rose in importance. In the Bihar region in the 6th century BC a wealthy merchant class (largely Vaishyas) began to support speculation challenging orthodox beliefs. For example, that era's UPANISHADS (scriptural texts that were part of the Vedas but attempted to go beyond them) began to challenge the traditional authority of the Brahmans. In the northeast, where Aryan influence was relatively weak, the religious systems known as JAINISM and BUDDHISM were founded around 500 BC. Both were widely supported by the merchant and landowning aristocracies of eastern India, and both can be viewed in part as revolts against Brahmanism.

Rice Agriculture, Communal Life, and the Confucian State in China

-Yang-Tze River, Yellow River
-Geographically isolated land mass: Himalayas, Pacific Ocean.
-Cultural stability.




Rice Agriculture
-Vital for survival.
-Requires a very-well organized social structure.
-Carefully designed social roles.
-Provided stability through centuries.


Shih Huangdi The First Emperor known as the Tiger of Qin 256 B. C.
Founding of the Qin (Chin) Dynasty 221-207 B. C. Short lived due to harsh rule.



Terra-Cotta Statues of the Army



Forbidden City



The Great Wall


The Chinese Political Philosophy and Historic Change
The Mandate of Heaven is discussed as a political social philosophy that served to explain the success and failure of monarchs and states until the end of the empire in 1911, the Chinese Nationalist Revolution of Sun Yat Sen. Whenever dynasties fell, the reason was that the rulers had lost the moral right to rule, the Mandate of Heaven, which is given by Heaven alone. The theory is claimed to be the invention of the Chou (Zhou) dynasty to justify their theory of overthrowing the Shang. Paternal and familial values, the importance of harmony among members of social hierarchy were major components of this philosophy. The tradition was probably derived from the ancient faith of the Chou in Tien hsia, the supreme divinity of heaven, similar to the Tangri of the Ancient Turks who shared a frontier culture between North China and the Steppe world of the Nomads beyond the Great Wall of China. According to the Chinese perception of the cosmos, Heaven was cosmic force that ruled the world of man and nature with one law, that of morality. Note how I Yin the chief minister explains the virtuous rule of the Hsia kings as represented in the peaceful and tranquil conduct of nature – no calamities from Heaven. Birds and the beasts, fishes and tortoises enjoyed existence according to the nature. But, when rulers are corrupt and loose their moral character, nature as the instrument of Heaven’s wrath punishes all by calamities, and even work as a divine inspiration for peasant rebellions. Natural calamities and popular protest are reflections of Heaven’s moral indignation on the decline of virtue in the world of men. This cycle of morality, virtue, and political change explained the rise and fall of dynasties in Chinese history, the dynastic cycle which had a metaphysical explanation behind the politics of change.

Age of Philosophy and Confucius

The 6th century B.C. in Greece and in Ancient China represent the age of philosophy in human history. The age of the Hundred Schools corresponds to the Classical Age of Greek Antiquity, an interesting coincidence in historical change. Confucius, K’ung fu tzu, latinized by later European scholars who admired the principles of Chinese Civilization, lived between 551-479, a decade before the birth of his great Greek counterpart Socrates 469-399 B.C. Plato lived 427-347 B.C. again quite contemporary to the Chinese philosophers. Both believed that a good society or state had to be led by men of superior virtue and wisdom. Both distrusted laws and regulations because they made men devious, and distrusted merchants because they were greedy. Neither favored democracy, but believed in absolute truth and that humans should live in harmony and peace. While Confucius believed men were inherently good, Plato argued men needed controls an idea closer to the Legalists who were rivals of Confucius in Chinese society.

Confucius systematized what was already a familiar discussion in Chinese culture and his disciples prepared the written text of the Analects, Lun-yu, that became the major corpus of learning in Chinese society in the later ages, constituting the written texts that became the foundation of the tradition of the centralized state.

Confucius starts off by arguing that men are born Good. Evil or Corruption is the result of loosing the Way and not a consequence of inherited traits or Original Sin. Education therefore is the only and crucial means with which a person can discover the good in himself or herself and become a cultivated gentlemen. While Confucius approved of a society of elites, and a social hierarchy, his arguments assume that all men have the potential for becoming Chun-tzu or a cultivated gentlemen which infuses an egalitarian principle into his political and social philosophy. The Gentleman is not an implement, a technician or specialist. He should be a man of all seasons, having a great vision, a balanced perspective without bias over many questions. A gentleman thinks of the Way not how to make a living even if he is a farmer. Confucius did not idealize poverty as would be the case of ascetic religious life, but that wealth and prosperity should not be the only object of one’s desire.

Confucius emphasized the major importance of the ideal of filial piety, meaning the obligations and duties of children toward parents that now became the model for governing the relations of rulers and subject. Filial piety is the base of the tree trunk of a gentlemen’s character. Feeding is not good enough, loyalty and respect have to complement the performance of one’s duties toward parents. The virtue of Ren or humanity was a major quality of a gentleman. Ren is human heartedness, love, benevolence, propriety which makes the world go around.

A second significant concept of Confucianism is Ceremony , Li, which is quite an interesting concept because it is sometimes difficult to understand it from the perspective of modern culture that has a distaste of ceremony and ritual which are negatively interpreted as artificialities or superficial appearances of things. Ceremony means to perform principles of virtuous conduct according to accepted forms of ritual and manners. The ceremony of an act is a direct representation of its essential character and not at all a superficial appearance of things. There cannot be a noble savage in Chinese context. For nobility requires the end to savagery by the cultivation of form as well as content. The complex ritual of ancestor worship that is described in the history of Ssu Ma Kuang, Chinese Ancestral Rites, 1019-1039, reveals for us the seasonal, religious aspects of Ancestor worship which constitutes the Ceremony for filial piety. While the concept was not interpreted as a religious practice by Chinese philosophers such as Confucius, still, the care with which ceremony had to be performed has to be understood in the context of the rituals of faith that underlined much of ceremony in Chinese society.

Confucius envisioned a society in which human relationships defined the individual not laws. Five Relationship Doctrine of the Mean, of ruler subject, father son, husband wife, elder brother younger brother, and friend and friend. An orderly society is one where all behave according to the expectations of these social relationships in reciprocity of benevolence and loyalty, cultivate their persons by the investigation of things, knowledge extended. For Confucius, it was the familial universe of the Five Relations that was the ideal society of a human being, whereas for Plato it was the city or polis. Human nature for Confucius was one and good, whereas it constituted of three parts, rational, desires for pleasure and wealth, a part which favored spirited love of honor and victory. While the guardians of Plato excelled in wisdom, they were similar to the gentlemen of Confucius but Plato’s guardians led by a philosopher king had true knowledge whereas the others had beliefs. The Gentleman of Confucius is the product of a meritocratic principle if not a social order for anyone with good cultivation can become one. In this sense Plato has less faith in human’s ability to create a perfect society. Most people were destined to live by mistaking shadows for reality. Both were founders of political thought and social ideals in their civilizations. And both were concerned about the solution to injustice and chaos in the world of human kind.

The art of government concerned all Chinese scholars. Confucianism is the most famous of the many schools of thought which debated about what Good government should be and what was the ideal social utopia of human kind. For Confucius, rule by force or even by the constraints of rule and regulations prescribed by written codes were inferior modes of political power. The great ruler does so from the sheer charisma of moral force, and keep order by ritual. Correct etiquette, and the court and religious ceremonies in all matters. It is leadership by example, not by enforcement. In the ideal Confucian state of affairs, good government and social harmony are achieved by a sort of influenza effect of the positive influence emanating naturally from the leader to the community effortlessly.

Greeks and The Barbarians (14 October)

The earliest recorded civilization in the western Aegean world:

*Minoans(2000-1400B.C.):-
-Based in Crete.
-A mercantile, sea civilization.
-Palace at Knossos
-Peaceful subjects in arts.
-No defense systems.
-Linear A Script.

Myceneans
-Militaristic society.
-Trade and agriculture.
-Linear B Script.
-Increasing cultural unification in Greece.

Dark Ages:
-Little evidence available.
-Greeks seem to have forgotten writing.
-Decline of urban life.


Rise of Greek colonialism by the 9th century B.C.

-Emergence of a common Greek culture thanks to common religion, language, Olympic games, oracle at Delphi.
-Increasing distinction between the Greeks and the Barbarians (non-Greek speakers)
-Barbarian as the ultimate other.
-Greek colonialism resulting in an intense cultural interaction between the Greeks and the Barbarians.



Limits of the Greek/Barbarian Dichotomy
-Herodotus' accounts on Persians.
-Plato's criticism of the dichotomy.
-Aeschylus'^Persians.

The Hellenic Synthesis

Hellenistic world and its difference from classical Greece

Political structure
Economy and trade
Urban life
Culture and arts


Alexander's Dream, Mural from Pompei, Italy

Classical Greek World

Changes after the dark ages and their contribution to Greek democracy The rise of POLIS (POLIS)
The rise of hoplite phalanx
The rise of colonies and commercial expansion (accompanied by the rise of writing, and changes in art and architecture)

Athens before ‘democracy’
-Council of elders
-Executive officials (archons)
-People’s assembly







Changes after the dark ages The rise of POLIS (POLIS)
The rise of hoplite phalanx
The rise of colonies and commercial expansion (accompanied by the rise of writing, and changes in art and architecture)

Athenian move towards ‘democracy’
Solon’s reforms after 600 B.C.
Easing the burdens of debts on farmers
giving citizenship rights to foreign merchants and artisans
people’s assembly being opened to the poor, and rise in its powers

Cleisthenes’ reforms after 500 B.C.
making people’s assembly as the sole source of power

Athenian democracy
The Assembly
The council of 500
The courts

Spartan political system
Dual kings
Council of elders
Ephors
People’s assembly


Greco-Persian Wars (499-479)
INVASION OF DARIUS (Dariyush)
Battle of Marathon (490 B.C.)
2. INVASION OF XERXES (Shayarsha)
Thermopylae victory for Greeks
(480 B.C.)
Significance: uniting Greeks

Ancient Greek Civilization

1. Bronze-age civilizations
(2000 B.C- 12th century B.C. )

2. ‘The Dark Ages’
(12th century B.C.-8th century B.C.)

3. Classical Greek civilization
(8th century B.C- 4rd century B.C.)

3. Hellenistic world
(338 B.C.- 146 B.C.)

Emphasis on:
political system
connections with the Near East
commercial ties with the outside world





Minoans

Centered on the island of Crete
Flourished especially around 17th century B.C.
Primarily a mercantile people


Palace at Konossos

Mycenaeans
Centered in southern Greece
Flourished especially between 1600-1200 B.C.
A militaristic society living in walled towns



Bronze Age Civilizations in Greece
Developed urban life
Centralized and monarchical system of government
Large bureaucracies
Similarities in religion, and in art

‘The Dark Ages’ (12th- 8th centuries B.C.)
Urban decline and depopulation
Fewer international contacts and less trade
Simpler state structure
No writing
art with simpler designs


Byzantine Manuscript of Homer's Iliad

4th Week Primary Source Announcement

Dear All,
We will only be discussing Thucidydes,The Peloponnesian War this Friday. The other two primary sources that are indicated in the syllabus are cancelled.

Cultural Continuity and Political Fragmentation: Anatolia in the Iron Age

Terminology

Neo-Hittite kingdoms
Hieroglyphic Luwian
Aramaic, Phoenician
Neo-Assyrian Empire
Urartians, Bianili(Van)Tushpa,Hurro-Urartian language (East Caucasian Language Family)
Phrygians, Gordion
Troia,Taruisha, Assuwa, Wilusa
Myceneans, Linear B, Ahhiyawa, Achaeans
Arzawa, Mira, Caria
Lukka, Lycia
Lydia, Sardis
Alphabetic script
Indo-European languages





Neo-Hitite Kingdoms



Urartian Rock Inscription in Cuneiform

Social Stratification and Historical Records: Anatolia in the Bronze Age

Terminology

AnatolianChronology
Early Bronze Age ca 3000-2000 BC
Middle Bronze Age ca. 2000-1650 BC
Late Bronze Age ca. 1650-1200 BC
Kanesh, Karum, Wabartum, Neshili
Hattusha, Hittites, Hattic
Social stratification
Land-deed tablet
Seals and seal impressions, bulla


Anatolia is topographically too large and differentiated to exhibit unified development: regional traits prevail for millennia from the first permanent settlements on


EARLY BRONZE AGE
Anatolia in the Third Millennium BC
No literacy discovered so far, thus language/s not known
Life takes place mainly in villages
Larger centers do exist, beginning of settlement hierarchies = network of settlements
Increase of social stratification/ reflected in lay-out of settlements and cemeteries
Sites with monumental buildings begin to appear i.e. West= Troia, Beycesultan, Center= Kanesh
Towns have fortification walls and towers and gate ways


Dry Farming (importance of rain, W-god)
Animal husbandry (sheep, goat,
Metal processing (bronze, copper, silver, gold, electrum)

Some areas involved in long-distance trade
Administration: seals and seal impressions

Formal cemeteries distinct from settlement
Complex iconography known only from Central Anatolia


MIDDLE BRONZE AGE First half of 2nd millennium BC
Anatolia between 2000-1650 BC

Dominant political organization city-states cf. to Early Dynastic Mesopotamia
Central authority: palace Fierce competition
Trade network involves connections to Northern Mesopotamia
First written records appear, imported
Private archives of merchants: historical primary source

Hattusha-Boğazköy

150 km E of Ankara
Today open-air museum
Center of a National History Park
Since 1986 one of Turkey’s nine sites in the UNESCO list of world cultural heritage
Since 2001 the clay tablet archives at Hattusha have been included in the UNESCO ‘Memory of the World’ list.

From Prehistory to History: From Accounting to Writing: Early Scripts and Ancient Languages

Terminology

Script-language
Cuneiform (nickname)
Pictogram/pictographic
Ideogram/ideographic
Logogram/logographic
Phonetic/phonetization
Syllable/syllabic script
to decipher a script
Epigraphy (Inscriptions)
Palaeography (manuscripts)
Sumerian
Early Semitic languages:Akkadian, Eblaite, Assyrian, Babylonian
Hieroglyphic Script (Egyptian, Luwian)
Alphabetic Script
Papyrus, Parchment


When was writing invented?
Was it a single act?
What is the need that triggered developments that lead in the end to writing?
Intellectual needs? Spiritual needs? Other?


Earliest Written Signs around 3000 B.C.

Pictograms/Ideograms/Logograms: pictures of objects from economic transactions= sheep, grain, fish, cattle, jars of oil
One sign(picture) per object, numeric signs as well





Early writing has no language
Early writing is ideographic, often mnemonic (shopping list)
How do you write about ideas, feelings anything you cannot draw a picture of?
How do you write verbs, grammar, language?

REBUS Principle

Example that works in English
Belief= bee + leaf
The sound value of a sign is recognized
This step is the phonetization of writing: you begin to use the sound of words
each sign now conveys a syllable

Writing invented by Sumerians, Sumerian many mono syllable words, meaning changed by adding suffixes


Cuneiform: nickname given to Mesopotamian script= wedge shaped
No connection between visual sign and the meaning of the sound that it represents
Combination of syllabic writing with some ideograms
Problematic part: leads to a lot of signs!!!

Egyptian Hieroglyphic Writing
Hieroglyph: ancient Greek designation for ancient egyptian script, ‘ta hieroglyphica’ means ‘the sacred carved (letters)’
In principle similar to cuneiform system= syllabic way of writing
Remains confined to Egypt and Egyptian
Mostly preserved inscribed on stone/wood/faience
Writing on papyrus invented in Egypt, writing used hieratic, an adaptation of hieroglyphic script to cursive and fast reproduction


Alphabetic writing

Next development in systems of writing: one sign per one sound (consonant or vowel)
Decreases the number of signs significantly to ca. 30
Seems to have been stimulated by egyptian hieroglyphic writing
Earliest signs encountered already in Sinai(Searbit al Khadim, cared by miners at the turquoise mines

Film Screenings

Dear Students,
The schedule of the movie screenings is as follows:

21 October 17.00: 300 Spartans, GKM
4 November 17.00: Gladiator, GKM
23 November 17.00: The Crusades, Volume I-II (Documentary) GKM
16 December 17.00: The Crusades, Volume III-IV (Documentary) GKM

It is not mandatory to attend the screenings, but it is strongly recommended that you see the movies either following the schedule above or by yourselves. These movies and documentaries are going to be part of the discussions carried out in Friday sessions. Please try to relate the movies to what we cover in classes, discussion sessions, and readings.

Egypt: The Pharaonic Kingdom and the Nile

Fertile Crescent:
1.Early villages of foragers
2.Agriculture: dry farming
3.EarlyUrban Centers: Irrigation agriculture, full-time craft specialization




A= White Crown of Upper Egypt
B= Red Crown of Sais and Butto (Lower Egypt)
C= Combination Crown to signify rule over entire territory

Mesopt. And Egyptian Chronology (ca./B.C.)

Late Uruk Period 3300-3000 Predynastic (c. 4650-3150)
Early Dynastic Period 1+2 (3050-2686) Early Dynastic Period 2900-2300
Old Kingdom Dynasties 3-6 (c.2686-2181)


Ca. 2350 BC
6th Dynasty:

System of ‘nomes’ (Greek nomos=district, province)
Villages, royal estates and small towns grouped together into regional administrative units under the control of a local governor. Arbitrary divisions.

From Prehistory to History II: The Rise of Civilization: Early Urban Centers of The Ancient Near East

Terminology:
• Subsistence
• Surplus
• Alluvial plains
• Craft specialization
• Social complexity
• Pristine civilizations
• Uruk
• Wheel-made pottery

Fact:
Establishment of First Villages and Agricultural Transformation

. Where do we find early villages ? Why ?
. What is the next step? How are agricultural villages able to spread beyond their ‘ecological’ niche?
. Where do we begin to see villages from the 6th millennium onwards?

Settlement in Mesopotamia:
• Alluvial Plains created by the Euphrates and Tigris rivers = Mesopotamia (modern term)
• village type of settlements begin here in the course of the 6th millennium (irrigation)
• Settlement pattern studies
• in the course of the 4th millennium development of one major urban scale center: the city of URUK (Warka in modern Arabic, Erech in the Old Testament)

How do we define an urban center?
Following Criteria derived from G. Childe’s proposal
• Size of settlements
• Full-time specialization of labor
• Economic surplus
• Monumental public works
• Long-distance trade
• Institutionalization of religion
• Emergence of writing







Early Dynastic Political Discourse:

City-state: central town+villages in hinterland (r= ca. 15 km)

Two types of land-use:
1. cultivated land=irrigated
2. Pasture land,hunting area

Population growth+dryer climate=stress
Competition for land!! New concept leads to organized warfare

Mesopotamian ideology about cities:

•Cities built for specific Deities
•Deities live in a world parallel to humans
•Temples are divine households
•Temple administration=urban elite=owns land
•Private land ownership on a small scale also exists however.
•Economy organized in households Divine and private.

From Prehistory to History 1: Agricultural Transformation and First Permanent Settlements

Terminology:

. Hominidae
. Homo Sapiens
. Palaeolithic, Neolithic, Chalcolithic
. Neo-graecizing terms
. World wide Climate Change
. Quaternary, Pleistocene, Holocene
. Mobile Hunters and Gatherers
. Agriculture, Domesticated species
. Permanent settlements=villages
. Çayönü
. Nevali Çori
. Göbekli Tepe






Time Frame:

* Duration of hominid existence on our planet
* Location of earliest existence?
* When do hominids begin to spread?
* When and Where do we have traces for early hominids in Turkey?


Traditional Terminology for Chronology:
. Paleolithic (Old Stone Age)
. Neolithic (New Stone Age)
. Chalcolithic (Copper/Stone Age)
. Bronze Age
. Iron Age
. So called Three Age System Developed by C. Thomsen to classify collections in the National Museum of Denmark in early 19th c. (1816-19)
. What are the problems?

Alternative Terminology:
World Wide Climate Chage
. Quaternary Period: 4th geological in the history of the planet which includes both climatic periods below
. Pleistocene (1.6 million- 10 B.P.) Great Ice Age
. Holocene (10.000 B.P.- present) Post- Glacial Period

Location:
Ancient Near East
. Why do we begin our survey in the so-called ANE or Southwestern Asia?
. Two developments in the history of human record that proved irreversible observed in this region earliest in date.

Agriculture and Permanent Settlenments:
. Agriculture refers to the domestication of selected plant and animal species in answer to human needs
. Why? How? Where?
. How can we tell?
. Man has always built shelters to protect from the elements. Permanent settlements refer to man building shelters which are used all year around and over generations
. Beginning of agriculture.

ANNOUNCEMENT 20 NOVEMBER

Dear all,
Because a conference will be held at GKM at 20 November, Hist 105 lecture will be delivered at NH 105 at 12 o'clock.